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What is collaborative learning?
Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. According to Gerlach, "Collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that learning occurs."
There are many approaches to collaborative learning. A set of assumptions about the learning process (Smith and MacGregor, 1992) underlies them all:
1. Learning is an active process whereby students assimilate the information and relate this new knowledge to a framework of prior knowledge.
2. Learning requires a challenge that opens the door for the learner to actively engage his/her peers, and to process and synthesize information rather than simply memorize and regurgitate it.
3. Learners benefit when exposed to diverse viewpoints from people with varied backgrounds.
4. Learning flourishes in a social environment where conversation between learners takes place. During this intellectual gymnastics, the learner creates a framework and meaning to the discourse.
5. In the collaborative learning environment, the learners are challenged both socially and emotionally as they listen to different perspectives, and are required to articulate and defend their ideas. In so doing, the learners begin to create their own unique conceptual frameworks and not rely solely on an expert's or a text's framework.
Thus, in a collaborative learning setting, learners have the opportunity to converse with peers, present and defend ideas, exchange diverse beliefs, question other conceptual frameworks, and be actively engaged.
Collaborative learning processes can be incorporated into a typical 50-minute class in a variety of ways. Some require a thorough preparation, such as a long-term project, while others require less preparation, such as posing a question during lecture and asking students to discuss their ideas with their neighbours. Regardless of the specific approach taken, the goal is the same: to shift learning from a teacher-centred to a student-centred model.

Does collaborative learning work?
Studies indicate that positive results in student achievement are observed in college level courses (Johnson, et al., 1998; Johnson, et al., 1991). In science, mathematics, engineering and technology (SMET) college-level courses' fewer studies have been performed. The most recent data for the impact of small-group learning strategies in SMET college-level courses comes from the meta-analysis by Springer (Springer, et al., 1998) which showed a "significant and positive" effect on three factors: achievement, persistence, and attitudes. An effect size of 0.51 in student achievement was found in this study, and would translate in a student's achievement on a standardized test going from the 50th to 70th percentile. An effect size of 0.46 was seen with student's persistence. This would result in a reduction in attrition from SMET courses and departments of 22% as compared to students not exposed to a collaborative learning environment. Finally, an effect size of 0.55 was observed in student attitudes towards the subject matter and their feelings about their competence in the discipline as compared to the average effect of 0.28.
The positive impact on student achievement is tied to the strategy of both establishing group goals and requiring individual accountability. In this way, the group members are given incentive and motivation to help one other through the task at hand. Relations between different ethnic groups are also improved when individuals from diverse backgrounds are brought together in a respectful cooperative manner to discuss specific and non-trivial concepts. To contrast this, the traditional alternative to small-group learning is a competitive relationship that typically sets one student against another as they compete to achieve academic success. The effort to mainstream academically handicapped special students also finds positive effects with cooperative learning. With these teaching methods, academically handicapped special students are more integrated and socially accepted by their peers as revealed by sociometric measures. Finally, the research on students' self-esteem is somewhat mixed: most studies show a positive effect on either academic, social, or general self-esteem though some studies revealed no resulting change in self-esteem (Slavin, 1995; Cooper, et al., 1990).

Why does collaborative learning work?
There are theories on how collaborative learning improves the educational and psychological outcomes for students. These can be broadly described as cognitive, social constructivism, and motivational.
Cognitive approach: For learners to retain and comprehend knowledge, it must be placed in a conceptual framework (Cooper, et al., 1997; Slavin, 1995). In the small group setting, the learner has the opportunity to rehearse their understanding with others and to be exposed to other conceptual constructs.
Social constructivism: For knowledge to be internalized and a framework established, a social discourse must first take place. It is this discourse that leads to the conceptual framework in which to relate the new knowledge (Bruffee, 1992). As MacGregor states, "Knowledge is shaped, over time, by successive conversations, and by ever-changing social and political environments." (MacGregor, 1990). Feminist pedagogy contains many of the same ideas of social constructivism (Belenky, et al., 1986).
The motivational theorists believe that the inherent structure of cooperative learning creates an environment which motivates learning. For instance, if group and individual performances are components of the final assessment, individuals are motivated not only to learn the material but also to encourage all group members to understand the basic underpinnings of the knowledge. Hence, there is a driving force to foster positive interdependent relationships between group members. That is, cooperative learning creates a "One for all and all for one attitude." (Alexandre Dumas)

Groups
In the collegiate world, groups provide support, an academic framework to learn, a conduit for encouragement, and in many ways, a buffer that can prevent academic failure. Outside the academic world, groups provide a social structure to enhance life, celebrate triumphs, and assist with tragedies. They help provide a religious context and in general, create a sense of community.
Successful collaborative learning requires effective and appropriate implementation of student groups. Depending on the purpose and longevity of the group, the instructor needs to consider the size and composition of the group and the amount of direction or guidance given. Coupled with these items that the instructor can control, are the many personal issues and "baggage" that come with the students that the instructor can not control but may be able to mitigate. How do the students feel about working in groups? Are they looking forward to this experience or are they resistant to this style of learning? Even if students generally like the idea of working with each other, they may have previously had bad group experiences that lay the foundation for resistance. As one student wrote,
"Often when I hear that we have to work in groups I get very uneasy. I do not always like to meet new people." (chemistry student)

Types of groups
Many types of groups can be used. Three examples (informal, formal, and base) are described below.
Informal groups can,
have a short lifetime ranging from a few minutes to the class period
are generally created quickly or ad hoc, (e.g., the instructor may say "discuss this concept" or "discuss this question with your neighbours"),
have little structure or format,
have new group members with each new class day,
are especially useful during lectures because it can break the lecture in mini-lectures, and
may provide a quick check on student comprehension.

Formal groups on the other hand,
last several days to several weeks,
require more planning as to the size and composition of the group,
have greater structure,
have a specific purpose (e.g., a particular task to accomplish), and
have the same group members throughout its existence.

Finally, base groups serve a broader purpose. They
last the entire semester (or even several semesters),
meet regularly,
require planning as to the size and composition of the group,
personalize the task at hand by providing support, encouragement, and assistance between group members
have a specific purpose (e.g., a particular task to complete), and
have a constant membership.

Each type of group has its purpose, along with its advantages and disadvantages

Essential group factors
Collaborative group work is not simply having students sit together and talk; this typically is not collaborative learning. It is not giving the same individual task to several students and telling them to talk about the assignment with each other. Nor is it asking whoever finishes first to help those not yet done. Collaborative learning is not accomplished when one or two group members do all the work and the other students simply sign their names to the group product.
To make collaborative learning a success, there must be some kind of "glue" that holds the group together. Group members must feel they need one another, must want to help each other learn, and must have a personal stake in the success of the group. They also must have the skills necessary to make the group work effectively and be able to regularly analyze the group's strengths and weaknesses to make adjustments as needed.
Those experienced in successful small group work have found five essential components (i.e., the "glue") that are necessary:
• Positive interdependence
• Face-to-face promotive interactions
• Individual accountability and personal responsibility
• Teamwork and social skills
• Group processing

Positive interdependence
Positive interdependence means that team members need each other to succeed. A childhood example is the three-legged race. Though smaller than the typical learning groups, it illustrates clearly the dependence each team mate has with the other individual.
There are many forms of positive interdependence that can be structured in groups.
One way learning goal interdependence can be ensured is if the group's goals include that all group members must understand a specific concept well enough to explain it to another group.
Positive interdependence can be reached with product goal interdependence: i.e., when students must reach a consensus answer.
A reward interdependence can be built into the group by having some form of shared grades. For example, besides their individual scores on an exam, students receive a certain number of points if all group members score at or above a certain grade.
Resource interdependence relies on the fact that individuals each possess specific resources needed for the group as a whole to succeed. This can be arranged by giving specific resources to different individuals in the group.
Role interdependence occurs when specific roles are assigned to group members, for example, recorder or time keeper. The roles can rotate weekly to give all team members experience.
Task interdependence occurs when one group member must first complete his/her task before the next task can be completed. For instance, collecting water samples might be assigned to two group member while research on how to collect samples is done by two other group members.
One way to ensure that positive independence occurs lies with the face-to-face promotive interactions between group members.

Face-to-face promotive interactions
Face-to-face promotive interactions give individuals opportunities to help each other overcome problems. They provide the feedback between members necessary for all individuals to test ideas and build a framework for their knowledge, and they provide resource sharing. Finally, they embody respect, caring, and encouragement between individuals so all are motivated to continue to work on the task at hand.

Individual accountability and personal responsibility
"Another disadvantage [of collaborative learning] can be if one group member doesn't contribute as much as the others do. This will often leave the other members frustrated and the student who isn't contributing won't really learn anything." (chemistry student)
This eloquently stated concern about individual accountability is common among students who participate in collaborative learning groups. No one wants to work with others who want a free-ride. The purpose of collaborative learning groups is to create academically stronger students. To accomplish this, students must contribute their fair share. The instructor must structure the groups so that individuals do not have an opportunity to "hide". For instance, the instructor could require as part of the assessment that all group members present their group's results to other groups.
The importance of individual accountability can not be overstated: this issue lies at the heart of the "fairness" issue that concerns many students. To encourage individual accountability, the group as a whole also needs to have certain group skills to keep everyone on board as will be discussed in the next section.

Teamwork and social skills
The ease with which students talk in groups in the minutes prior to the start of class does not indicate how well they will work in a small group on an academic task where they must rely on one another. The assumption that students will actively listen, be respectful and thoughtful, communicate effectively, and be trustworthy is not always correct. Often, time must be set aside to work on these and to point out that teamwork skills are essential for achieving the course goals. One way to enhance student social and teamwork skills is to set aside some time occasionally to discuss these issues. This sends a signal to the student that these skills are important and can clarify these social and teamwork skills. This self-assessment survey method is also useful for group processing.

Group processing
Group processing provides feedback to group members regarding their participation, provides an opportunity to enhance the members collaborative learning skills, helps to maintain a good working relationship between members, and provides a means of celebrating the group's successes. One strategy is to ask each team to list three things the group has done well and one that needs improvement (Smith, 1996). Instructors can also encourage whole-class processing, whereby he/she observes groups and provides feedback either to individual groups or to the entire class.

Group size
It seems prudent to keep groups as small as possible to promote positive interdependence, yet as large as necessary to provide sufficient diversity of opinions and backgrounds as well as resources to get the job done. The size of groups formed is directly dependent on the activity to be pursued and the length of time the group will stay together. Typically, for in-lecture informal activities, group size is often kept small (in the range of two to four students) since larger groups have insufficient time to become cohesive. In contrast, a complex semester long project may require the resources of a larger group (four to six students) and there is enough time for the group to become effective.
Fiechtner and Davis (1992) investigated why groups fail. They surveyed students on a variety of factors related to structure and function of groups. Students in large groups (eight in this case) focused on the difficulties of scheduling meetings. Most authors (Cooper, et al., 1990; Johnson, et al., 1998; Nurrenbern, 1995; Slavin, 1995) favour groups of four to five students because larger groups do not provide an opportunity for all members to participate and enhance their skills. This author's and his colleagues' personal experiences also find that groups of six or more students tend to create a situation where students can "hide" and not participate fully. Further, the smaller the group, the greater the likelihood of positive interdependence.

Who forms the group?
The general consensus is for the instructor to form the collaborative learning groups (Cooper, et al., 1990; Nurrenbern, 1995; Fiechtner and Davis, 1992). One reason for not allowing student-selected groups is students often cluster with friends. This creates either a situation where an "outsider" who joins this group may feel left out (Fiechtner and Davis, 1992). In addition, students may not be exposed to as rich a diversity of ideas when they form their own groups.

Homogeneous or heterogeneous groups?
Much of the literature emphasizes that groups should be heterogeneous when possible (Cooper, 1990; Johnson, et al., 1998; Nurrenbern, 1995; Slavin, 1995). The rationalization for this is to create a more diverse environment of backgrounds, ideas, ethnicity, and gender. Though this appears to be reasonable on the surface and a generally accepted practice, some research is beginning to contradict it (Felder, et al., 1995; Rosser, 1997; Sandler 1996).
This research suggests that isolating students of colour from other students of colour, or women from other women can in fact be detrimental to the academic success of these individuals because they can become isolated, marginalized, or placed in stereotypical roles and not permitted to flourish. They caution that even though small "collaborative" learning groups are formed, basic issues of power and dominance within these groups may still exist. For instance, given the roles of recorder and presenter in a group, will women tend to be "driven" into the less demanding role of recorder? Likewise, would an African-American student in a group with four Caucasian students have felt more comfortable had he or she been placed in a group with two other African-American students and two Caucasian students? In so doing, does this now create wholly Caucasian groups with minimal diversity? These are difficult questions to confront when grouping students. Instructors may feel uncomfortable if they "isolate" ethnic groups even though these groups may flourish more because they have a common component: ethnicity. Evidence from Treisman (Treisman, 1992) has shown how academically powerful study groups comprised of predominantly African-American and Hispanic students in mathematics can be.
There is no clear way to maximize group diversity and prevent individual isolation. A common-sense compromise would be to cluster at least two women or two students of common ethnicity in each group. Though this does not maximize diversity, it still permits some diversity while attempting to prevent the spotlighting of these individuals in the groups.

Group Roles
When setting up collaborative learning activities, the instructor must decide whether to assign group roles or to let the group members decide. Some criteria to consider may include the educational maturity of the students, their familiarity with group work, and the available time for the activity.
Some groups function best if they decide the roles themselves. This is often true with more mature students or students familiar with group work. However, students may opt for the role they are most comfortable with and avoid the opportunity to develop other skills. If this is the beginning of the course, this may be a reasonable approach since it is non-threatening. Alternatively, the instructor can simply rotate roles within the group after the first activity to assure that all students experience a multitude of roles. This is especially useful if there are a series of week-long tasks for the group. Fewer roles may be needed for short or simple tasks. For example, a brainstorming session probably only needs a recorder. See Ann Burgess's teaching story to see what roles her groups use.
Here are some examples of roles individual team members can play. Your groups may require somewhat different roles or combinations of roles (Johnson, et al., 1991; Millis and Cottell, 1998; Smith, 1996):
• Group facilitator: moderates discussions, keeps the group on task, assures work is done by all, and makes sure all have opportunity to participate and learn.
• Timekeeper: monitors time and moves group along so that they complete the task in the available time, keeps area clean, assumes role of any missing group member if there is no wildcard member.
• Recorder: takes notes of the group's discussion and prepares a written conclusion.
• Checker: makes sure that all group members understand the concepts and the group's conclusions.
• Summarizer: restates the group's conclusions or answers.
• Elaborator: relates the discussion with prior concepts and knowledge.
• Research-Runner: gets needed materials and is the liaison between groups and between their group and the instructor.
• Wildcard: assumes role of any missing member.

Group Dynamics
Let's start by emphasizing that collaborative group work does not mean each student does the same task individually and then compares answers when done, nor does it mean one student writes a report and puts all the students' names on the top, nor does it mean that the faster students help the slower ones (Smith, 1996). Rather, properly structured collaborative group work involves a carefully planned task that includes positive interdependence, social skills training, group processing, and some form of group evaluation. First, a comparison of the traditional learning group and a cooperative one is helpful for clarification (Johnson, et al., 1991):
Cooperative Learning Group Traditional Learning Group
Positive interdependence No interdependence
Individual accountability No individual accountability
Heterogeneous membership Homogeneous membership
Shared leadership One appointed leader
Responsible for each other Responsible only for self
Task and maintenance emphasized Only task emphasized
Social skills directly taught Social skills assumed or ignored
Teacher observes and intervenes Teacher ignores groups
Group processing occurs No group processing

To help foster a positive experience for the students in the formal groups, it is incumbent on the instructor to teach the social and group skills necessary for their success. Students must understand and use conflict resolution skills, know how to build trust within the group, communicate their ideas effectively, listen to other ideas, be respectful to one another, be able to reach consensus within the group, and stay on task. These skills do not always come naturally to students: They must be taught, learned, and experienced.
One way to have students practice various skills is to have group roles rotate. For example, the group facilitator could change for each meeting. The instructor may need to explain some basic facilitator skills such as encouraging everyone to participate by asking questions of those who haven't volunteered a response, setting a schedule, and prompting if the group gets off-task.
The instructor can encourage learning by occasionally using the last 5-10 minutes for the group to break into pairs and have one person explain a topic to the other student. The instructor then provides a second concept and the two students switch roles.
The problem of having one member dominate the discussion can be solved by giving each member an equal number of times to speak. In this way, a dominant member is limited to the same number of comments as other group members. Further, in encourages all group members to reflect before they speak knowing they will only get a specific number of opportunities to speak (Millis and Cottell, 1998).
To ensure that groups are functioning well, the instructor must stay engaged with the groups. The instructor should note whether all students participate, no student is dominates, and all students respect one another. It also provides insight into how the group is going about completing the task and if the group is confused or mis-directed.
It is a good idea for the instructor to initiate periodic group processing sessions by setting aside five minutes for a questionnaire that asks the groups to list three things the group is doing well and one or more ways it could improve. It is important that sufficient time be given for this, that processing is specific and not vague, student involvement is maintained throughout the processing, and that group processing goals are explained to the students (Smith, 1996).

Why groups fail?
An article by Susan Fiechtner and Elaine Davis, "Why Some Groups Fail: A Survey of Students' Experiences with Learning Groups" sheds light on how to assist in making the group experience for students a success. These researchers surveyed several upper-division speech communication and business classes, and from the response of 155 students, generalized some group structures and assignments that may create a more positive experience for students.

Forming groups
• Students have a better experience with groups established by instructors and not students.
• Though not causing a significant difference in student experiences, groups of four to seven students were preferred.
• Allow groups to become cohesive - do not continually dissolve groups.

Assignments and activities
• Assign one or no class presentations.
• Assign one to three group written assignments.
• Have five or more group exams.
• Provide for more than the minimum amount of in-class time for group work.

Grading policies
• Group work should count for more than 20% of the total grade.
• Include peer evaluations worth 21% to 41% in the course grade.

Feedback
• Make sure students can not simply divvy up an assignment and have each group member do their own individual part of the assignment.
• Have large group projects due before the end of the semester and provide continual feedback.

Second Year Project

Taking on board some of the principles outlined above a Year 6 teacher proceeded to develop a topic on the Romans.

Pupils worked in a collaborative situation.

The plan of the topic is outline below and lasted for a period of five weeks with 15 pupils with a group size of 5

History: Romans - QCA Units 6A
\Year 6\Half Termly Planning

Topic Objectives

QCA ask and answer questions about what survived from the Roman settlement of Britain \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to relate their own experience to the concept of settlement \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to recognise that people have been moving between different areas for a long time, and that some reasons for moving \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
were the same as those of people alive today
QCA to use the terms 'invade' and 'settle' \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to place the Celtic and Roman periods in a chronological framework \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to recognise characteristics that place Celts and Romans as having lived a long time ago in the past \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA that Romans invaded Britain and that the period of conquest was followed by a period of settlement \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to select and record information about Celtic and Roman ways of life \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA that sources about Boudicca contradict each other \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA about aspects of life in Celtic and Roman Britain, using a variety of resources \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to make comparisons between these lifestyles \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA that there are different opinions about Boudicca \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA the main events in Boudicca's revolt \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA the reason for the revolt \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA that there are different interpretations of the revolt \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA about the results of Boudicca's revolt \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA to appreciate that people have points of view about events in the past \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
QCA about evidence that tells us about life in Roman Britain \QCA History\Year 3\6a. Romans
NC 9 An overview study of how British society was shaped by the movement & settlement of different peoples in the \NC History\KS2\Breadth of
study\Romans, Anglo-Saxons & period before the Norman Conquest & an in-depth study of how British society was affected by Roman or Vikings
Anglo-Saxon or Viking settlement.

Week Objective Main Activity

Week 1
to recognise that people have been moving between different areas for a long time,
and that some reasons for moving were the same as those of people alive today
Children to establish where their family is originally from, different
places in the country or abroad. Why did the members of their family move
here?
Detail to the children where the Romans fit into British history, when they
invaded, why and where.
that Romans invaded Britain and that the period of conquest was followed by a period of Explain they invaded and settled and look at some of reasons into why.
settlement

to use the terms 'invade' and 'settle'

to relate their own experience to the concept of settlement
to place the Celtic and Roman periods in a chronological framework

Week 2 Who were the Celts, establish with the ch. and discuss their relationship
with the Romans. What
that Romans invaded Britain and that the period of conquest was followed by a period of was Roman life like? Look at where the Romans settled and the lives they
settlement lead. Give children a selection of headings to research underneath to find
more information about.
to use the terms 'invade' and 'settle'
to recognise characteristics that place Celts and Romans as having lived a long time ago
in the past
to select and record information about Celtic and Roman ways of life
to make comparisons between these lifestyles
about aspects of life in Celtic and Roman Britain, using a variety of resources

Week 3 To look at the Roman army and what characterised them and why they were
so strong and the characteristics of a Roman soldier. Look at army
formations and how this made them strong
to use the terms 'invade' and 'settle' .
to recognise characteristics that place Celts and Romans as having lived a long time
ago in the past
about aspects of life in Celtic and Roman Britain, using a variety of resources
ask and answer questions about what survived from the Roman settlement of Britain

Week 4
To evaluate and express the children’s learning so far this year. Children to be split into two groups, children to work upon display work for
topics covered so far.

To display work and knowledge of the Romans.

Week 5 Tell the children the story of Boudicca, look at the main events and the
reason behind the revolt.
What really happened and the long lived stories which may or may not be
true.
the main events in Boudicca's revolt
the reason for the revolt Children to order and re-tell the story of Boudicca, character analysis of
about the results of Boudicca's revolt Boudicca.
that sources about Boudicca contradict each other

During the course of the project, after the first lesson, the teacher presented the groups of pupils with a questionnaire

The Results of questionnaire were analysed and the data is shown below

Following the five week project the pupils were given a final questionnaire to complete

The Results of questionnaire were analysed and the data is shown below

The data indicates a clear improvement in the social and academic skills of the pupils

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